Fireground Tactics

by F. R. Montes de Oca

Initial arrival at a fire often poses several simultaneous challenges for the officer to address rapidly. Utilizing the Rule of 3 can help the incident commander to develop a tactical posture. They are:

1.   What do I have?

2.   Where is it going?

3.   What do I need?

The first question (What do I have?) addresses:

The terrain of an incident location or layout of a building can impact the tactics you should use.

• What is the building used for?  Living? Storage? Manufacturing?

• Is it a single or multiple-family dwelling?

• Are there victims? If so, how many? Are they exiting on their own?

• What is the square footage and how many stories?

• Are additional occupants still in the structure who need help to exit?

Similar questions can be asked for a vehicle fire: size (single, multi-vehicle or public transit vehicle. Victims out or entrapped?

The second question (Where is it going?) forces you to think about the possibility of spread:

• Do I have exposures? Is high heat or high winds affecting fire spread?

• Can I ignore the exposures and focus on the primary body of fire?

• Will I need additional resources for fire progression AND exposures?

• Must I focus all resources to rescue occupants?

Focusing on egress pathways for building occupants is imperative. Often-times with limited resources tactics must be focused solely on rescuing or assisting occupants exit the structure.

The third question (What do I need?) is based on what is discovered or decided upon by answering the first two questions. What resources needed implies deciding whether hoselines are applied directly initially or are supply lines needed – or must victim rescue be my first tactic?  

The situation is often complicated by the fire rapidly spreading due to high winds or multiple victims needing rescue. When this occurs, tactics will change quickly from suppression to rescue.

While the tactics may address the initial and additional  challenges, it is important to remain cognizant of additional aspects to ensure an effective fireground operation:

Communications, which is the critical conduit of incident management. All on-scene and responding members must be apprised of the current situation and have a clear understanding of their assignments.

Rehabbing responders operating on scene is one of the most important actions the Incident Commander can ensure occurs. Ensuring that  members take a short break every 15 minutes or so will allow crew viability and increased scene effectiveness.

Incident Safety should be the overarching effort all scene commanders should undertake. Whether on scene at a structure fire, complex vehicular accident or hazardous materials incidents maintaining the safety and well-being of responders is imperative.

If formally assigned Safety Officers are not part of the department, it is advisable to appoint someone on scene whose only function is observing operations to ensure the safety and welfare of all firefighters. Whenever possible, the individual assigned the task should possess a mix of experience and formalized safety training.

At your next emergency incident pose the three questions to assist you in developing effective tactical decisions.

In closing, Incident command truisms that help officers maintain a sharper eye on effective tactical decision-making:

• When a tactic is not working, change the tactic.

• No matter how good your plan is, have a backup plan.

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Frank Montes de Oca served as a firefighter/paramedic for over 38 years attaining positions as Chief of EMS, Training Bureau Commander, and Chief of Department. He remains engaged in managing and developing firefighter safety programs and mentoring leaders.

Successes and Updates on AFM's Active Bleeding Control Program

Africa Fire Mission (AFM), in collaboration with its international research and implementation partners, received support from the Laerdal Foundation to launch Active Bleeding Control (ABC): A Pilot Life-Saving First Aid Program in Sub-Saharan Africa. The project aims to reduce death and disability from life-threatening bleeding in Sub-Saharan Africa through contextualized training for first responders and community members. This includes a focus on reducing deaths from life-threatening bleeding in high-risk road traffic accident corridors in Nairobi. This was the first year of a three-year grant and we were able to make significant progress with implementing a contextualized program for Sub-Saharan Africa.

Volunteers participating in ABC training.

Our goal for the training of trainers was to create a replication model for training. Since the end of March 2025, volunteer instructors have trained more than 790 individuals. The training has already been conducted across two countries (Kenya and Malawi) and eight cities/ counties (Figure 3). This training equips community members with critical skills to stop lifethreatening bleeding. Participants in the Active Bleeding Control trainings come from diverse backgrounds, including transit workers, workers in the hospitality industry, students, community health promoters, public health officers, teachers, church groups, museum staff, firefighters and EMTs. Interest in the program is growing, and replication of the training is gaining momentum as our instructors actively engage with their communities. We are now over halfway to our goal of training more than 1,000 individuals in life-saving active bleeding control techniques and are actively developing strategies to expand training access for transportation personnel.

These successes highlight the need for this program and the success of our replication modelfor training. Contextualizing the Active Bleeding Control (ABC) curriculum for the Sub-Saharan African context has proven essential to the program’s acceptance and effectiveness. Our focus groups highlighted that cultural norms in many communities discourage bystander involvement in emergencies, often due to fear of legal consequences, misunderstandings about disease transmission, or social taboos around touching blood or injured persons. In some cases, people are explicitly advised not to help, out of concern for personal liability orsuperstition. Additionally, limited awareness about basic first aid practices andmisconceptions about bleeding injuries can lead to harmful delays in care. By adapting training materials to reflect local language, beliefs, and lived experiences—and by incorporating trusted community voices—we are addressing these barriers and fostering anew culture of empowered, informed responders within the community.

Empowering trainers to volunteer their time to impact their communities has also proven tobe a successful model fostering increased buy-in as well as long-term commitment for sustainability and growth of the training program.

Interested in learning more? Read our full report below:

PFAS and Firefighters in Africa

by Mike Kull

Recently there has been discussion throughout the Fire Service about the presence of and exposure to PFAS for firefighters. PFAS (per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances) are a man-made class of thousands of “forever chemicals” that do not break down in the environment, are highly mobile, and can accumulate in the body and cause disease.

Firefighters are exposed to these chemicals several ways:

• Smoke and Soot from Fires

• AFFF (Aqueous Film Forming Foam) Firefighting Foam

• Dust, Dirt and Debris around the Fire Station

• Firefighter Turnout Gear (PPE or Personal Protective Equipment)

There are many ways to try to reduce exposure to these hazardous chemicals. Firefighters should always wear a complete PPE ensemble (Tunic, trousers, boots, gloves, hood, helmet and BA) when exposed to smoke from fires containing any man-made products. This PPE should be properly cleaned after each exposure to smoke and soot. Care should be taken when removing this contaminated gear and firefighters should thoroughly clean and shower themselves after each incident involving smoke and soot. Fire Brigades should evaluate the type and use of AFFF foam. AFFF should not be used for training, exposure should be limited, and everything exposed should be flushed with clean water. Care should be taken while cleaning the Fire Station and equipment to limit exposure to dust and soot from fires.

These are all practices that have been implemented throughout the world to limit exposure to harmful chemicals. Another exposure comes from PPE itself. Research has shown that most firefighter PPE is treated with some of these “forever chemicals.” The equipment is treated with these chemicals to meet standards and requirements for the performance and manufacture of firefighting PPE.  These chemicals may be used to increase resistance to flames and provide waterproofing in the equipment. Firefighters can be exposed to these chemicals through absorption through the skin.

The exposure to these chemicals from firefighting PPE poses a special problem for many firefighters in Africa. In other parts of the world, Fire Brigades are changing policies and procedures and procuring alternate equipment to reduce this exposure. The equipment containing these chemicals is only being used for incidents involving fire. For many African firefighters, turnout gear is worn all the time. Many firefighters do not have uniforms, and the turnout gear is worn as if it were a uniform. Many firefighters don’t have access to alternate forms of PPE that do not contain these chemicals so wearing a different type of PPE is not an option.

Summary:  

• Firefighters need to be aware of the hazard of being exposed to PFAS.  

• Firefighters need to take steps to limit their exposure to these chemicals.  

• Firefighters need to find a balance between reducing exposure to hazards and appropriately serving their communities.  

• Firefighters should explore other options for identifying themselves with uniforms instead of PPE.  

• Firefighters should only wear turnout gear to achieve a specific purpose such as training, responding to emergencies and increasing community sensitization. 

• After wearing turnout gear, firefighters should maintain the highest levels of personal cleanliness and hygiene.

For more information, visit the following pages:

Additional information at these links:

https://www.iaff.org/pfas/ 

https://www.usfa.fema.gov/blog/results-of-2nd-nist-study-on-pfas-in-turnout-gear/ 

https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/TechnicalNotes/NIST.TN.2248.pdf 

https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/TechnicalNotes/NIST.TN.2260.pdf

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Mike began serving as a volunteer with AFM in 2021. After his first trip to Kenya, he committed himself to serving the firefighters in Africa and has been volunteering with AFM ever since, and now works as Programs Director. Mike has worked in all aspects of Public Safety since 1998. He served 17 years as Fire Chief in Valley Township, Pennsylvania and also as a Forest Fire Warden for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. He has a background in law enforcement, EMS and the fire service, as well as politics, having served as a local elected official. Mike has a BS in Administration of Justice from the Pennsylvania State University, where he met his wife Jody. They reside in Bellefonte, Pennsylvania with their son Gunther.

Safety Versus Security: Can We Have Both?

by Jerry Bennett

During our fire training and prevention trips, one cannot help but notice the heavy security gates and bars protecting homes and businesses across Africa. Physical security is a necessary part of life regardless of where you live and work. Most of the world has cities and neighborhoods with heavy security measures such as padlocks, deadbolts, and security bars on windows and doors to prevent theft and vandalism, for good reason. Thieves will break in and steal or cause harm. At the same time, as homeowners and firefighters, we know that locks and bars designed to protect us from wrongdoers on the outside may also prevent us from fleeing danger inside our homes, especially fire and smoke. So, we must consider both risks: keeping bad people out whilst being able to escape quickly during a fire or other emergency.

The last fatal fire I responded to before retiring was a twelve-year-old boy. While he was sleeping, a blanket came in contact with a space heater and started a fire in his home. His parents had left for work and locked the children inside using a double-cylinder deadbolt (which requires a key to enter or exit). Unable to escape without the key, the boy hid in a closet and died of smoke inhalation. While double-cylinder deadbolts are less common in American homes, most homes and dormitories I have visited in Africa require a key to exit from the inside when the door is locked, usually unlocking a padlock.

Firefighters train fighting fires with a large wall as an obstacle.

So what can be done? As household leaders, consider your escape plan for your own home. If all windows and doors have security bars, could a modification be made to allow the bars to swing out after unlocking a mechanism with a key? This could be especially important in a two-story home where everyone sleeps upstairs and a fire starts in the kitchen below, preventing exit through normal means. If your home has one or more gates locked with a key, who has access to the keys, and where are they kept? Each family must make these decisions intentionally considering the possibility of fire even when parents are away from home. Consider these issues for other homes and businesses when conducting safety evaluations. Raising these concerns with home and business owners may cause them to devise creative solutions to balance security and safety.

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Jerry Bennett is a retired District Fire Chief from Illinois. He joined the AFM team in 2021 and has participated in several Mission Trips. Today, he is a member of our Board of Directors and assists AFM in planning and training.

Advancements in Mombasa's Fire Department

by Ibrahim Basafar

My name is Ibrahim Basafar, and I serve as the County Chief Fire Officer for the Mombasa County Government. I am also a PhD finalist in Law Enforcement and Legal Justice Systems at Mount Kenya University.

I recall joining the fire department from the Inspectorate department when His Excellency Abdulswamad Shariff Nassir was elected as the Governor of Mombasa County.

During a visit to the main fire station in October 2022, I was quite surprised by the conditions. There was no dedicated CFO office, recreation center, or classroom. The dormitories were in poor condition, infested with bed bugs, and lacked basic amenities like paint or fans.

The station was operating with only one functional fire engine with an unstable and leaking tank. Additionally, there were broken and leaking fire water hoses, no FFF foam, no allocated fuel, and a lack of essential protective gear such as fire tunics and breathing apparatus. There was also no established curriculum, control room, OB facility, or operational system in place. Sadly, the station had become known as a place to transfer officers with disciplinary issues from other departments.

Governor Nassir and I agreed that the fire department had been neglected and needed a complete transformation into a model department for other county and national entities to learn from. Our initial focus was on enhancing the capacity and discipline of our officers. Following this, we successfully increased the annual budget allocation for the fire department.

Today, we have 102 fire officers who have received comprehensive training in firefighting techniques, OSHA standards, first aid, and water rescue, along with internal supervisory training. Mombasa now has an Emergency Operation Center, overseen by a Fire Officer, which manages county-wide disaster and emergency responses. We have five operational fire engines and one rescue truck equipped with all necessary tools, including extraction equipment for road traffic accidents. All dormitories have been renovated, and the three main stations in Likoni, Changamwe, and Mvita have been refurbished to meet a standard fire department aesthetic.

Currently, we have 60 new, UK-standard fire tunic suits acquired by the county (not donated), 54 self-contained breathing apparatuses, UK-standard fire water hoses with branch nozzles, and a storage of 10,000 liters of AFFF foam. Continuous daily classes are conducted in all three stations using a standardized fire curriculum. Furthermore, a new fire station in Kiembeni is nearing completion at 85% and is expected to be fully operational by June 2025.

We have also extended our training to other counties and institutions, including 60 officers from Kiambu County Fire, 40 from Nairobi, 98 from Tana River (including Chief Wako), 300 individuals from various universities and colleges, and 220 ongoing trainees at the Mombasa Inspectorate school. In 2024, we conducted 52 school inspections and training sessions, as well as 50 community awareness programs.

Presently, 50% of our officers are fully equipped with standard fire tunic suits, boots, helmets, self-contained breathing apparatuses, and working uniforms.

With the continued support of His Excellency Abdulswamad Shariff Nassir, we are optimistic about achieving 100% PPE for the remaining officers in the next financial year. We also aim to build an additional fire station in Nyali, initiate a kitchen welfare program for our firefighters, and implement promotions for the existing force.

It truly makes our day when our firefighters return home safely with a sense of accomplishment.

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Chief Fire Officer Ibrahim Basafar is Mombasa County Government’s Fire Chief. He is a PhD Finalist in Law Enforcement and Legal Justice Systems at Mount Kenya University. He is an experienced Fire Officer and safety expert.

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“It’s incredible to see the advocacy and advancement taking place in the fire service in Mombassa. Collaboration, relationships, advocacy, and tenacity have been required to improve Mombassa’s fire service. We hope that other fire services in Africa can learn from what Mombassa is doing!”

- Nancy Moore, Africa Fire Mission, Executive Director

Firefighter Physical Fitness

by Howard Cohen

Firefighting is a dangerous and physically demanding job. Firefighters operate in harsh and challenging environments, use heavy, hard-to-handle tools, and wear many kilos of protective gear. We need to keep ourselves in great shape to do our jobs. This means we must care for ourselves through proper nutrition and hydration, physical exercise, and sufficient rest. This is what is minimally required to properly and safely perform our jobs.

If you stop and think about it, what is the one “tool” every firefighter uses at every call? It’s our body. We depend on our bodies for all aspects of firefighting. In this sense, firefighters are like elite athletes. While we may not have to jump, sprint, or throw a ball, we are often required to crawl, drag, or haul awkwardly shaped heavy objects in extreme heat conditions that greatly tax our cardiovascular systems. But there are important differences too. Elite athletes generally perform under optimal conditions. Firefighters respond to calls during the worst weather conditions. Elite athletes typically get a good night’s sleep before their big events. First responders are often woken up multiple times during the night. Elite athletes eat a well-balanced meal with regard to their upcoming sporting event. First responders' meals are often rushed, gobbled on the run, or interrupted by calls. However, the biggest difference is that it is all about winning or losing for elite athletes. What’s on the line for firefighters is often life or death; yours, your fellow firefighters, or a civilian’s.

The good news is that achieving a firefighter's operational level of physical fitness is not hard. However, it does require a commitment to exercise regularly. There are many great ways to hone your fitness level. If you can access YouTube, search for a type of workout that appeals to you. You will discover many free options to choose from.  Ideally, your workouts will include strength training with weights or whatever heavy objects you have available to you and cardiovascular exercises, such as lunges, jumping jacks, running, climbing stairs, or any activity that gets your heart rate up. You don’t need a specific or fancy program to get in good workouts. All you need is to make a personal commitment to move your body and get your heart pumping. Any well-rounded program will benefit you in all aspects of fitness.

A good workout routine for first responders ideally includes four types of exercises.

1) Active movement exercises

2) Strength building

3) HiiT: High Intensity Interval Training

4) Deadlifts

Active movement: Exercises such as Bear Crawls, Mountain Climbers, or Spider Lunges engage nearly every muscle group and build core and cardiovascular strength and agility. Their primary purpose is to improve mobility.

Strength Building (Dumbbells): If you have them, dumbbells are preferable to barbells for first responder strength training because they allow for a greater range of motion and enhance overall muscle stabilization and activation. Dumbbells also help identify and eliminate strength imbalances by forcing the limbs to work unilaterally. If one side is significantly weaker than the other, there's no way to compensate.  They are safer to use if you are working out alone. Finally, there is no limit to how you can use them in your workout.

HiiT: High-Intensity Interval Training: HiiT workouts consist of bursts of intense activity followed by short rest periods. They provide the most benefits in the least amount of time. The advantages of HiiT workouts include burning calories quickly, improving cardiovascular health, and enhancing metabolic function. Additionally, a HiiT workout increases muscle mass and effectively improves overall fitness levels.

Deadlifts: There is a tendency to think that deadlifts are just when you bend over and lift a heavy weight.  In fact, there are many variations of the deadlift. They include squats, lunges, single leg deadlifts, suitcase squats and farmer walks. All are excellent exercises for building stronger Legs, core grip, and lower back strength.

There are no downsides to exercising and being physically fit. Physical fitness has been shown to prevent or treat various chronic health conditions resulting from unhealthy lifestyles, and it even counters certain aspects of the aging process. Studies indicate that regular exercise strengthens the heart and, when combined with a healthy diet, can reduce the risk of cancer and enhance the immune system. Being physically fit also helps lower the risk of injuries that can hinder your ability to work. Sometimes, firefighters overlook that physical fitness involves more than just working out; it also requires taking care of your body through proper nutrition, staying hydrated, getting enough sleep, and avoiding or limiting harmful substances like alcohol, recreational drugs, or tobacco.

The biggest obstacle to sticking with a fitness plan is boredom. Therefore, it is important for you to find or create a routine that holds your interest. Mix it up too. Don’t do the same workout day after day. Work out with a friend or your other brigade crew members. Make it fun. To the extent your schedule permits, making your fitness program a fixed and regular part of your daily routine is also helpful. Some people like to get their workouts in early in the morning. This way, no matter how the rest of the day unfolds, it’s a good day because you got your workout in. Other people like to work out at the end of the day. This way, they figure they have something to look forward to no matter what kind of day they are having. I get my workout in every morning after having two cups of black tea and reading the headlines in the paper. After my workout, I’m ready for whatever is coming my way.

In conclusion, this article aims to inspire you to find and commit to a personal fitness program that excites and motivates you. Honor your body—after all, it is the home of your holy soul. Now get moving and get your heart pumping!

If you want to learn more about fitness training for first responders, I recommend this article. If you would like to learn more about cancer prevention for firefighters, read this recent AFM blog post.

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Howard A. Cohen was a volunteer firefighter for 20 years. He began his firefighting career as a chaplain and retired as the deputy chief. He is currently AFM’s online program content director. He frequently presents for the weekly virtual trainings and contributes to the AFM blog.

Cancer Prevention for Firefighters: A Vital Mission

Firefighters face unique and significant health risks due to their exposure to hazardous materials during their duties. Understanding these risks and implementing effective prevention strategies are crucial for promoting firefighter health and well-being.

Understanding Cancer Risks

Firefighters are regularly exposed to hazardous substances like benzene and formaldehyde, which can lead to serious health issues, including various cancers. The increased cancer risks make awareness and understanding essential for protecting firefighters' health.

Prevention Strategies

Employing effective prevention strategies can significantly reduce the cancer risks firefighters face during their careers. Key strategies include:

• Use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Wearing appropriate PPE is essential for minimizing exposure to harmful substances during firefighting. Regular maintenance of PPE ensures its effectiveness and keeps firefighters safe from hazards.

• Health Monitoring Programs: Regular health screenings and monitoring programs can help detect early signs of cancer in firefighters, promoting timely intervention.

• Training in Hazard Awareness: Providing training on hazard awareness helps firefighters recognize and mitigate risks associated with harmful exposures.

Wellness Practices

Promoting wellness practices among firefighters can enhance their overall health and well-being, mitigating health risks. Key wellness practices include:

• Healthy Lifestyle Choices: Adopting a balanced diet, engaging in regular exercise, and getting adequate rest are essential for maintaining good health and a strong immune system.

• Stress Management Techniques: Incorporating stress management techniques like mindfulness and relaxation can greatly benefit firefighters' mental well-being.

• Regular Health Screenings: Early detection of potential health issues through regular screenings can significantly improve treatment outcomes.

No matter what your position in the emergency services is, it is important to keep your health in mind!

Conclusion

Firefighters face unique cancer risks due to exposure to hazardous materials. Awareness, effective prevention strategies, and wellness practices are key to reducing these risks and promoting firefighter health. By prioritizing these measures, we can ensure the safety and well-being of those who bravely protect our communities.

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James Nyadwe is a Water Survival/Safety Expert and Trainer, Open Water Scuba Diver, and a Fire Advocate. James is passionate about sharing knowledge on safety issues on land and water that impact first responders. Additionally, James has served as an instructor for AFM’s virtual firefighter training.

Department Standardized Training

by Jeremy Ayers

It is often heard that fire departments operate differently across shifts and stations. This variation arises from differences in managerial styles and the emphasis placed on training. While diverse leadership styles can be beneficial, as they bring unique experiences and perspectives that help tackle various challenges, consistency in certain areas is crucial—particularly in training. Standardized training ensures minimal gaps in capabilities between shifts, fostering operational efficiency, and safety.

In the face of national challenges in recruiting and retaining firefighters, many departments are increasingly relying on overtime. This trend exacerbates capability gaps since different crews may prioritize distinct areas of training. When overtime personnel are assigned to shifts, they often have not trained with the regular crew throughout the year. This creates a significant challenge for company officers, who cannot feasibly address all high-risk, low-frequency scenarios during a single shift with temporary personnel.

Standardized training can help departments work together better.

Training and education are the foundation of the fire service. Therefore, it is imperative for departments to communicate a unified training agenda that ensures all personnel receive consistent, high-quality instruction. To address this need, the Pflugerville Fire Department (Travis County ESD2) has prioritized high-risk, low-frequency training by forming specialized training teams. These teams undergo advanced training throughout the year and deliver that knowledge to the entire department. They achieve this by visiting stations, conducting multi-company scenarios, or providing materials for officers to facilitate training sessions.

These specialized training programs cover essential topics such as vehicle rescue, swift water rescue, technical rescue, and Vent-Enter-Isolate-Search (VEIS). The key benefit of this approach is that all personnel, regardless of shift or station, receive the same foundational training annually. This consistency has led to notable success stories, demonstrating the positive impact of these initiatives on community safety.

One such example occurred late one night around 1:00 a.m., when the department was dispatched to a structure fire with a victim visibly trapped and hanging out of a window. The unit was recognized for its rapid rescue, with it only taking a few minutes from arrival to rescue the victim from a third-floor window without delays.

The truck was staffed with a lieutenant acting as captain, a probationary firefighter, a senior driver, and a relatively new firefighter. Remarkably, half of the crew members were from different shifts or stations. Despite this, they performed cohesively and at a high level, throwing a ladder to the third floor, masking up, and safely removing a victim from the window. This underscores the importance of VEIS training, which equipped all crew members with recent, standardized skills to handle such critical situations. Members were presented with similar training months before the incident occurred that outlined comparable rescue conditions.

Standardized training can help difficult emergency responses, like rescue operations, easier.

From the community’s perspective, firefighters are seen as a unified team ready to address emergencies, regardless of their individual roles or experience levels. For example, the probationary firefighter performed at a high level, and anyone observing from the outside would not have been able to tell he was the newest firefighter because of his prompt critical decision-making. To meet these expectations, firefighters must train rigorously and prepare for high-risk scenarios.

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Jeremy Ayers is an Apparatus Specialist with the Pflugerville Fire Department (Travis County ESD2), where he has proudly served since 2020. Pflugerville Fire Department is a career agency serving approximately 150,000 residents with eight stations and responding to around 14,000 calls annually.

Additionally, he actively contributes to the department’s recruiting, mentorship, peer support, and honor guard team. Jeremy is an advocate for the National Fallen Firefighters Foundation.

Jeremy holds a Fire Officer designation from the Center for Public Safety Excellence and an associate’s degree in Fire Protection Technology from Austin Community College. Jeremy earned his bachelor’s degree in Organizational Leadership from Texas A&M Commerce and his Master’s degree in Public Affairs with a concentration in Public Administration from the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley.

Bush Fires

by Brad Fiore

Just like any other fire, there are two main strategies in fighting bush fires: Direct and indirect. Topography, fuel types, and resources may vary between the US and Africa, but the basic tactics are the same. In a direct attack, we remove either the oxygen or the heat, and in an indirect attack, we remove the fuel.

The best tool we have for fire extinguishment is water. Unfortunately, a lot of times, the fire is in an area that makes it difficult to get water to. Hand tools play a significant role in fighting bush fires. The basic types are cutting, digging, scraping, and smothering tools.

In a direct attack removing the oxygen is accomplished by smothering the fire. We can throw dirt on the burning material or pat small flames out with our tool. I’ve seen fire flappers used to beat the flames of large bushes. I am not familiar with how well this works, but from another point of view, in North America, our flappers are smaller, and we use them on small creeping fires. The technique is to drag the flapper over the burning material, maybe using a slight patting motion. Beating a fire uses a lot of energy in one concentrated area. It also seems that embers are kicked up into the air, which could start a spot fire. Other tools, such as hoes and fire rakes, can all be used to pat out small flames.

Smoke coming from trees can be a sign of a potential bush fire.

When you use water to remove the heat, use it sparingly and wisely. Always walk in line with the fire, spraying water along the fire edge. This will make your water work smarter. Any water that bounces will bounce into the flames ahead. If you stand perpendicular to the fire, the overspray and bounce will fall into the already burned area, wasting that water. It doesn’t take a lot of water to douse the flames, so attaching a low-volume nozzle to your hose will extend your water.

The indirect attack is more labor intensive, but provides a safer environment for the firefighters. The indirect attack is the process of cutting a fire line around the fire. You and your team will be cutting and scraping away the fuel so that when the fire reaches the fire line, there is nothing there to burn.

Tools for this are anything you can use to cut through the ground material and dig down to the soil. Hoes and rakes made for this are great, but a garden hoe that is sharpened will do the trick. That shovel we used before to throw dirt on the fire, hold it parallel to the ground, and you now have a scraping tool. Chainsaws work wonders, but a hand saw, and a pair of loppers will handle small bushes and brush. A hatchet or fire axe can help clear small trees.

Your goal is to get down to mineral soil, and the width of the line needs to be one and one-half the height of the fuels. If you are cutting in grass that is a foot and a half tall, you need to make a line that is 3 feet wide. Always start and end at an anchor point. A road, trail, open dirt area, or body of water. The best practice for cutting the line is to space your crew a few feet apart so that swinging tools do not hit a team member. Each member will take a swipe and move forward along the line. As the team moves, each member is clearing more along the line.

Once the line is cut, and if you have time, you can backburn. This intentionally burns the material between your fire line and the main fire. The main fire will be intense and may make its own weather, causing high winds. Lighting a fire ahead of this will make the fire small and manageable. It will grow as it gets closer to the main fire, but at this point, it is within your control lines.

Anytime you are fighting bush fires, always have escape routes planned and made known by all members fighting the fire.

From my experience teaching a couple of the virtual classes for AFM, I have come to find out that you, like most firefighters, are extremely inventive. With the knowledge all the instructors provide, you find ways to make the resources you do have work. That’s what firefighting is.

Be safe!

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Brad Fiore is a volunteer firefighter of Cottekill Volunteer Fire Company and former Fire Chief. He also has experience as a 911 dispatch supervisor. Brad has served as an instructor for AFM’s virtual firefighter trainings.

Improving Your Leadership Success

by F. R. Montes de Oca

Leading a team can be frustrating and often stressful, but at the same time very rewarding. As a student of leadership, these are several leadership tips that I’ve learned over the years. These will help guide you on your leadership journey.

Demonstrate consistency in all you do. Be consistent in the way you handle challenges, successes, and failures. Those who work for you and with you depend on your measured, predictable demeanor. Before making a hasty decision, think of the outcome and consequences.

Be trustworthy. Personal trust is like a bank account. It may take you time to build trust with someone but lie or do something deceitful and their trust in you rapidly drops.

Leaders stay resilient during moments of hardship.

During the darkest moments, resiliency can help one to survive and thrive. As a leader, you will experience tragedy, failure, and disappointment. The need to be resilient is most critical during times of tragedy such as the loss of a department member or the after-effects of mass violence. If you choose to lead, a deep reservoir of resilience will help in your survival and success.

Practice humility. Successful leaders know when to show a little humility – especially when it allows the team to share in the limelight.

A little confidence goes a long way. Working in a profession that recruits and trains strong-willed men and women, leaders are surrounded by extremely self-confident team members. During operations when life-and-death decisions are necessary for one’s survival, confidence is often key to a positive outcome. However, there are times when confidence can be mistaken for arrogance. A fine balance of confidence and humility is always helpful… and respected.  

Always practice honesty. Enjoy your accomplishments and leadership position. And within the role of your duties and interactions… be honest in all you do. In doing so, your influence builds other honest leaders.

Great leaders are great communicators. Practice communicating in your community!

Communicate every chance you get. The key to success as a leader is communicating to those who follow you and to those you follow. Make every effort to keep everyone on the same page so your team operates as a solid unit.

The moral of this story? 1) Learn from everyone. 2) Lead with your head and your heart. 3) Never demand more than you are willing to give.

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Frank Montes de Oca served as a firefighter/paramedic for over 38 years attaining positions as Chief of EMS, Training Bureau Commander, and Chief of Department. He remains engaged in managing and developing firefighter safety programs and mentoring leaders.

Growing Mental Wellness Programs

By Chief Mike Kull =- Programs Director, Africa Fire Mission

Africa FIre Mission held its annual All Kenay Fire and EMS Training Symposium in November 2024. AFM integrated discussions about mental health and wellness into all of the training classes that were offered.   This topic is frequently requested and is especially relevant due to first responders being attacked while trying to lend assistance to the public during 2024 demonstrations in Kenya.

Mental health issues are often stigmatized, particularly among first responders and various communities across Africa, where such challenges are frequently perceived as signs of weakness. This stigma can lead first responders to fear ridicule or ostracism from their peers when confronting mental health or addiction problems. Such concerns are compounded by stories of alcohol abuse within the ranks of first responders, highlighting the urgent need for open dialogue and support.

To combat these stigmas, our training classes fostered a supportive environment where participants could learn, share, and hear the experiences of others. AFM’s instructors lead discussions and recounted their own journeys with mental health and wellness.   This, facilitated open discussions that underscored the importance of mental wellbeing and talking about trauma and its impact. Wellness exercises, including mindfulness and physical exercise, were integrated into the program to promote holistic approaches to mental health.

Feedback from participants indicated that these interactions proved invaluable; one firefighter expressed gratitude to an instructor, sharing his battle with alcoholism and his triumph in achieving sobriety since the training began. Additionally, training participants reported that the sessions significantly broadened their understanding of the stress and trauma that first responders endure. Chief Fire Officers, expressed that they gained renewed insights into the struggles faced by their team members, affirming the need for continued support and open conversations surrounding mental health challenges in high-stress professions.